Rai Music

This post is a summary in response to "Code Switching and the globalisation of popular music: The case of North African rai and rap" by Eirlys E. Davies and Abdelali Bentahila published by Multilingua 2006, Vol. 25 Issue 4 found in the Communication and Mass Media Complete database from the North Carolina State University library. 

Rai music originated in western Algeria and the eastern borders of Morocco while rap has its origins, as previously mentioned in other posts, in the West. However, recently Algerian and Moroccan artists have incorporated rap into their rai music while rai music is becoming more known in the West as well. The study found in Davie's article looks at the code switching found in North African rai and rap, which is the switching of languages often done within a group of bilingual peers. "It has often been observed that within bilingual communities code switching back and forth between the community's two languages may be the natural, unmarked medium for communication in many everyday settings, the proponents of such switching often seeming almost unaware of the fact that they are switching at all" (Davies, 367). However, when done in a public setting such as song lyrics, the code switching is not improvised and there most be a motivation for it. 

"Music has crossed frontiers perhaps more freely than many other types types of cultural manifestation . . ." (Davies, 368). This has resulted in a uniformity and hybridization and world music. Unlike the previous posts, this one will look at the flow of music from the West to the Third World and vice versa. There was hardly any reverse flow back to the West from Asian countries, but Algerian rai music has found some foot holds in the West. Rai has been hybridized before, such as pop rai, new rai, and being influenced with reggae and now rap.

The urban areas in Algeria and Morocco of Oran and Sidi Bel Abbes have become popular centers for rai music with young men and women (Chebs and Chebas). Photos of the cities are shown in order above found from http://ww8-africa.blogspot.com/ and http://www.vitaminedz.com/photo-image.php?lg=fr&wilaya=22&cat=categorie&id=5308&id_cat=16859&num=0. However, rai music has not always been so popular and was banned by the Algerian government from being on the radio. With the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in the 90s, so came the fall of rai, with the murder of Cheb Hasni in 1994 in the previously mentioned Oran and producer Ahmed Baba. Others were lucky and were forced into exile to Europe. 

You can hear the reggae influences in this song by Cheb Hasni. His death made number 46 on The Guardian's list of "50 key events in the history of world and folk music" at http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2011/jun/16/cheb-hasni-murder-rai-backlash. A year before, he played a concert celebrating Algerian independence. There has been equal deaths and controversy with rap music as there are other similarities: both are urban, both are used as a platform for self-expression by youth stricken with poverty, both borrow elements from other styles, and of course, both are controversial. One of Cheb Hasni's songs can be found here.

Because of negative outlook on rai music by the Algerian government, more have found success in Europe, such as Khaled's song "Didi" became a top 10 hit in France in 1992 which can be viewed here. I have actually heard this song before- we watched the video for this in my French 201 class at North Carolina State University . . . how's that for globalization? European immigrants from North Africa became more interested in rai music and even started producing their own, with artists such as Rai Kum, Saut el Atlas, and Faudel. Khaled came to America in an effort to build "a new bridge between Arabs and Americans through music" (Davies 372). "Thus the relatively impervious barriers of French popular music were breached by rai performers, despite the restrictions imposed by the Carignon law of 1994, which requires a quota of 40 percent of the songs on French state radio stations to be in French" (Davies, 372). Other nations have such quota systems and it seems the United States is one of the few who does not allow such a system to exist as it goes against the First Amendment. An article by Henry Samuel in the Telegraph written on May 4, 2011 says that now French artists are using more English in their songs, which is complicating the quota system. "The best female artist at this year's Victoires de la Musique – France's Mercury awards – was Yael Naim, a Franco-Israeli artist most of whose songs are in English" (Samuel 2011). Radio stations are struggling to fill this quota since the 718 francophone albums released in 2003 dropped to 158 last year. There is a call for change of the quota system, giving these "English-speaking French singers" a chance at success not just abroad but in France as well. Information found at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/8492894/French-radio-stations-fall-victim-to-anglophone-artists.html.

Above are some of Yael Naim's songs, the first being her most famous- something that even became famous here for being on an Ipod commerical found here. The second is in French and since Eirlys E. Davies and Abdelali Bentahila's article was about code-switching, I thought it was appropriate to show her singing in French as well and that is found here. The last song I just thought was a great example of globalization and the West having an influence on a Franco-Israeli singer who usually sings in English . . . which in itself is a great example of globalization and hybridization and that video is found here. But in this last video Yael Naim is singing a Britney Spears song, who is a big Western icon. Rai music has found some success in the west too, like with icon Cheb Mami who teamed up with Sting in the song "Desert Rose." This not only helped Cheb Mami's success in America, but increased Sting's popularity in Arabic-speaking nations. This video is found here.

Speaking of rap, Davies says "Wherever is has been adopted, it seems to have taken on similar roles, as a means of protesting against marginalization, injustice and deprivation, and of asserting the identity of minority or underprivileged groups, from the Maori of New Zealand to the marginalized sectors of Colombian society" (373). In fact, the second largest consumer of hip hop is now France where it has been of interest to African and Arab minorities. MC Solaar is Senegalese living in France and is a popular French hip hop artist. 

I have also heard of MC Solaar before (the first video found here), also from one of my French classes at NC State. Globalization once again in full effect. An Algerian rap group, MBS (the second video found here) claimed to have been inspired by MC Solaar and by American rap music. Another popular band in Algiers is Intik, and both groups now work from France. The third video is by Cheb Mami, the same man who sang with Sting, but this time he works with a rap artist. This video is from here. Others have successfully incorporated rai with rap and vise versa. However, the hybridization of rai and rap has led to the question of cultural imperialism. The spread of rap so quickly on a global scale has not helped this issue either. Many are afraid that by the youth embracing our Western music and western culture, they will forget their own musical heritage. The Davies article concludes that this fear is not yet justified.


Code switching, or switching between two languages, in rai is normally done between French and Arabic. Normally the chorus of a song is done in French while the verses or parts in between used to elaborate are done in Arabic. This is done so the songs will still become popular and played in France while remaining true to their North African roots. However, for European immigrants who are 2nd generation and born in Europe- the strongest language and most used would be French rather than Arabic. Something similar that we (in the U.S.) may be able to relate to is Latin or Central American rap artists who have both English and Spanish in their songs- such as Pit Bull. He is Cuban-American and incorporates Spanish in his songs as well as makes Spanish versions of his songs. An example of this in his video "I know you want me" found here.

This was the first time I have really researched rai music and music with origins in North Africa. Do I think this music can have an impact in the west? With the current language boundary, no. France has a population of people who are fluent in multiple languages and therefore when performers do songs in English, French, or Arabic . . . it isn't really a problem, of course other than the law that dictates that 40% of the music played on the radio is in French. In the U.S., as just stated, we listen to songs with some Spanish in it and while most of the population can't understand it, there are enough people who feel a since of pride and community because of the little bit of Spanish in a song. I'm sure that is the same with how Arabic is mixed in with French songs. However, I believe French, Algerian, or Moroccan artists could find success in America if they, like Cheb Mami work with already success Western artists, or simply write some songs in all English. Yael Naim sings almost exclusively in English now and she is still one of the best female artists of France and has become at least moderately popular in the U.S. This statement is not a form of westernization by any means either- it is a fact that English is becoming the international language for business. And the music business is one of the toughest in the world.